Basics

Introduction

One of the most important skills you will develop in English this year, is analytical skills. You will encounter many different types of texts, and you will employ different types of analysis to them. In the past you have probably started learning about literary analysis, but this year you will also learn about rhetorical analysis, how to analyse language features and literary devices in different kinds of text, and we will go deeper into analyses of different kinds of literature such as short stories and poems.

What is the point?

The point of learning how to analyse texts is that it gives us tools to achieve a deeper understanding. When we become aware of different features of texts, and learn to discover the deeper meaning behind using different devices in texts, it enriches our reading experience. It also allows us to become more critical reader and thinkers. If you are able to spot the “tricks” used by political speakers in order to persuade us, we will be able to use our critical thinking skills in order to discern the true message. These skills are crucial in order to be active citizens in a functioning democracy.

Experience with analysing texts will also make you a better writer and speaker yourself. What devices can you use in order to persuade your audience? What features can you include in your text in order to make your message clearer, or how can you be creative in your use of literary devices. The more we understand how a text is structured and how a text affects the reader, the better we will become at communicating as well.

Rhetorical Analysis

A Master of Puppets

 

In ancient Greece and Rome, rhetoric was important, because citizens took part in public discussions, and also pleaded their claims in court (ThoughtCo, 2017). Rhetoric is about the art of effective communication, and through conscious use of rhetorical devices, which you will read about below, you can write effective speeches, essays or use these “tricks” in discussions and debates.

Rhetorical Appeals

In order to try to persuade someone, whether it might be in a political speech, advertisement, campaigns or similar, it is common to use rhetorical appeals or persuasive devices. A very long time ago, the Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote an influential book simply titled ‘Rhetoric’. The three rhetorical appeals are logos, pathos and ethos. These are Greek words meaning reason, emotion and character (Store Norske Leksikon, 2021). Below you can see what each of them means and an example of how it has been used.

LOGOS
Logos refers to fact and reason and logic. By backing up arguments with for instance statistics, research and verifiable information, the recipient of the message is more inclined to believe it. See for example how this advertisement uses logos in order to persuade you to purchase their service:

Logic?

©Arne Mjelde Sæther / DALL-E
PATHOS
Pathos appeals to our emotions and sympathies. By use of examples, emotionally loaded words or images, the sender of the message plays on emotions like fear, happiness, sorrow in order to envoke a reaction in us (Andersen, N.D.). Below is an example of how this rhetorical appeal form has been used:

With Feel

©Arne Mjelde Sæther / DALL-E
ETHOS
The last form of appeal is ethos, which refers to how we trust and respect the people behind the message. Using celebrities to endorse a message, or using people who are respected and trusted in campaigns or advertisements can be a powerful tool. If we respect someone, we trust what they are saying. Consider how this works in the two videos below:

Trust and Credibility

©Arne Mjelde Sæther / DALL-E

Rhetorical Devices

Above you have seen explanations for the different appeal forms. In addition, we can analyse a text, speech, advertisement etc. in more detail by looking at the rhetorical devices used. Here are some examples from Donald Trump’s speech on January 6, 2021 (Naylor, 2021):

RHETORICAL QUESTION

Questions asked without expecting an answer. «And by the way, does anybody believe that Joe had 80 million votes? Does anybody believe that?” (Donald Trump, January 6, 2021). 

REPETITION

Repeated words, phrases or sounds . «You will speak up, you will show up, you will stand up…» 

HYPERBOLE

Exaggeration = «I walked a million miles to get here.» 

CONTRAST

Emphasizing the difference between two things  «The whole world suffered, but America outperformed other countries economically because of our incredible economy and the economy that we built.»  

SENTENCE LENGTH

Longer sentences slow down the reading or speaking pace, while shorter sentences tend to speed it up. «They’re calling it a miracle. And that was the vaccine.»  

VOCABULARY/ GRAMMAR

Inclusive vocabulary, choosing personal pronouns like ‘we, us’, exclusive pronouns: we vs. them/they. «We created Space Force, We, we, we» If they do the wrong thing, we should never, ever forget that they did.

EMOTIVE VOCABULARY

Positively or negatively charged words.  «It’s a disgrace.» «You're stronger, you're smarter, you've got more going than anybody.»  

Textual Analysis

Language Features and Literary Devices

When analysing a text you are often asked to comment on the purpose of the text, and on the effect of the use of language features and literary devices. The following will give you some ideas for what to look for.

PS. Do not confuse this type of analysis with a rhetorical analysis, however, some of the devices and features cross over with what we looked for when analyzing rhetorical devices.

Purpose
What is the author’s intention or purpose with this text? Is it to inform, persuade, entertain?

Language Features

Beauty in Grammar!?

©Arne Mjelde Sæther / DALL-E
Analysing language features and their effect means looking at the authors choices of both words and sentence structure, and the effect of these choices. Below is a list of examples of language features that you can look for. NB. It is important that you manage to use the right terminology.
NOUNS
Nouns are words that name objects, places, persons, and abstract ideas. The choice of nouns affects how we understand a text. Nouns often have connotations, meaning the ideas or feelings that a word invokes in the reader, in addition to its literal meaning.
ADJECTIVES
Words that describe the noun. You can for example look at whether the adjectives used are negative or positive and how this effects the tone of the text.
SENTENCE LENGTH

Short, simple sentences vs. longer, more complex sentences. A text with many short sentences can have the effect of simplifying the message, and can be more effective in emphasizing the overall idea in the text. More complex sentences might seem more academic, and perhaps more serious and trustworthy.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS
Personal pronouns: I, you, he/she/it, we, you, they
  • The choice of pronoun often affects the readers sense of inclusivity or exclusivity.
  • The plural first-person pronoun “we” or “us” makes the reader feel included. The same effect can be achieved by using the personal pronoun “you”, to address the reader directly, and making them feel directly involved.
  • The personal pronoun “they” can exclude groups, and suggest an “us vs. them”. Certain politicians use this as a quite effective tool.
VERBS
Verbs are action words, describing what someone or something does. Changing the tense of the verbs can have an effect on the message and the reader.
  • Use of the imperative form of the verb can encourage the reader to take action and get involved: “Get out there and make a difference!” “Read books!”
  • Using active or passive forms of the verb can change the meaning of a verb. Compare: “We are destroying our water supplies” to “the water supplies are being destroyed”. In the first sentence the reader is directly implicated, by the use of the personal pronoun “we”, and it implies that the reader has a responsibility in this. In the second example, the reader is more distanced, and the destruction is something that happens without “us” being involved in it.

Literary Devices (only a selection)

IMAGERY
  • Metaphors: A figure of speech that indirectly compares two things. For example “he is a night owl”. The use of metaphors makes a text more interesting and helps create images in the reader’s mind.
  • Simile: A direct comparison: “She runs like a gazelle”. The effect will be similar to metaphors.
  • Symbol: A word is used to represent something else, and the meaning of the symbols are cultural. An example is a heart means love, a white dove stands for peace, a cross symbolizes Christianity.
RHETORICAL QUESTIONS
The writer asks questions without expecting an answer. “Why are we doing this to mother earth”? The effect is often to make the reader think about these questions, and maybe to form their own answers in their mind.
REPETITION
Can be repetition of a word or phrase. “We are strong, we are young, we are powerful”.
HYPERBOLE
Exaggerations, the effect is often to emphasize a point, and maybe provoke the reader.
PERSONIFICATION
Gives inanimate object human characteristics. “The sea was angry that day”, “Life was smiling at me”. Like metaphors, personification can make a text more interesting and varied, and it can create connotations that invoke emotions in the reader’s mind.

Literary Analysis

A Literary Landscape

©Arne Mjelde Sæther / DALL-E
Literary analysis gives us the tools to understand a short story or novel better. It allows us to see the connections between form and message, and it can also be used in order to compare different works of fiction. The following are the main elements:
PLOT
This refers to the narrative structure. We are not looking for a summary of what happens in the story or novel, but how the narrative is structured. What is the central conflict/conflicts, how does tension develop, what is the climax and resolution of the story, and what effect does the narrative structure have?
SETTING
The time and place of the story. This can be quite simple: “it takes place in New York in the 1990s”. But we are often looking for more detail. What does the historical setting mean? What is the social setting (upper class or working class, a school environment, a subculture?). What does it mean if the whole story takes place at night? Is there a symbolic meaning to the setting? How is the setting described?
CHARACTERIZATION
Can be as simple as describing the characters in the story, but we will also wish to go beyond that. Are the characters static (stay the same) or dynamic (change through the story)? Are the characters flat, or round? How do we get to know the characters – through direct or indirect characterization?
POINT OF VIEW / NARRATION
From whose perspective do we see the story? Is there a 3rd person point of view, which allows us to see the story from the outside? How much does the narrator then know about the inner lives of the characters? An omniscient narrator knows what all the characters are thinking and feeling. A limited narrator might know the thoughts and feelings of one or none of the characters. Sometimes the narrator is one of the characters, using a first person point of view. These choices also have an effect on our reading of the story.
THEME
The theme can usually be summed up in one or few words, such as family relations, love, death or identity. These are often big topics, and you need to be able to explain what it is in the story that allows you to claim that for example identity is a central theme. A story might have more than one theme.
LITERARY DEVICES
See the section above for explanation of some common literary devices.

Arne Mjelde Sæther

47 69 59 80

arnemjeldesaether@gmail.com

 

Arne Mjelde Sæther

47 69 59 80

arnemjeldesaether@gmail.com

 

Arne Mjelde Sæther

47 69 59 80

arnemjeldesaether@gmail.com

 

ANALYTICAL SKILLS

➤ Rhetorical Analysis

○ Rhetorical Appeals

○ Rhetorical Devices

➤ Textual Analysis

○ Language Features

○ Literary Devices

○ Literary Analysis